Biblioteca

Various documents on results from research grant

Campos, L. C.

2013

University College London, UK

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Luiza Cintra Campos is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/97-enabling-environment-and-others/4741-modelling-the-next-generation-of-sanitation-systems-university-college-london-uk#2898 Short description of the project: The project develops a simulator for sanitation systems. The novelty of this project lies in the adaptation of an existing resource-flux simulation methodology used on networked systems to calculate nutrient and energy fluxes specifically for on-site sanitation systems. The simulation methodology has been already applied successfully by ifak in several networked sanitation contexts in developing countries. However, the concept is currently being extended to cater for non-networked sanitation systems. The model outputs are the main fluxes of energy and nutrients and, thus, their available amount for recovery, volume/quality of treated waste for reuse; and monetary value of the waste reuse. Demonstration of systems which have increasing commercial viability due to waste reuse/nutrients recovery can be used to explore business opportunities for sanitation. The flexibility of the simulator also allows to include in the future modules for sanitation technologies developed in the future. Once further developed, the model will have the potential to aid city-managers to evaluate alternative sanitation technologies and to select the most sustainable and cost-effective solution. Significant cost-savings and improved utilization of resource streams, thus increasing revenue, are expected by application of this simulator. Goal(s): The goal of this project is to develop an easy-to-apply simulation tool set up to enable local city managers to assess the implications of adopting alternative sanitation strategies at scale. Objectives: The main aim of Phase-I is to develop a simulation tool to model flux of residual wastes from streams in the sanitation service delivery chain, focusing on nutrient and energy fluxes. Research or implementation partners: UCL is working in collaboration with ifak which is a non-profit institute for applied research at Otto-von-Guericke University in Magdeburg/Germany that develops simulation models for water and wastewater applications. Authors: Campos, L., Jain, V., Schuetze, M. Start and end date: November 2011 - October 2013 +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Simulating nutrient and energy fluxes in non-networked sanitation systems (Durban South Africa, Oct. 2012) 2 - Simulating nutrient and energy fluxes in non-networked sanitation systems (Presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012) 3 - Modelling the next generation of sanitation systems

Bartelt,L. A., Lima,A.A.M., Kosek,M., Yori,P.P., Lee,G., Guerrant,R.L.

2013

PLOS ONE, volume 7, issue 4

This neglected disease initiative's(NDI)purpose has been to close the existing poverty gap between individuals living in low/middle-income and high-income countries, and thus facilitate the achievement of the 2000 Millennium Developmental Goals. The gap is still large. Yet, some marked achievements of the NDI give hope that the WHO's NTD paradigm, are proving beneficial.

5

Spears, D.

2013

The World Bank

Policy research working paper

This research working paper is intending to explain variations in height in developing countries by analysing the sanitation coverage. Especially in India, where stunting is much more problematic than in other countries. Dean Spears has already demonstrated the existence of a causal effect of sanitation on child height (Spears, 2012; Hammer and Spears, 2012). But this paper aims to demonstrate how the variations in child height among developing countries can be explained by differences in statistics of open defecation.

55

Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) play a fundamental role in improving nutritional outcomes. A successful global effort to tackle under-nutrition must include WASH

Velleman, Y., Pugh, I.

2013

WaterAid; Share

This paper is aiming to do to some advocacy to highlight the fundamental role of WASH in improving nutritional outcomes.

3

Various documents on results from research grant

Mobarak, M., Shane, K.

2013

Institute for Financial Management and Research, Chennai, India

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Mushfiq Mobarak and Kevin Shane are leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/97-enabling-environment-and-others/4554-communal-sanitation-solutions-for-urban-slums-institute-for-financial-management-and-research-orissa-india Short description of the project: This is an urban infrastructure project that seeks to design and build improved sanitation facilities in the cities of Bhubaneswar and Cuttack in the state of Orissa in India. It provides a new, holistically re-imagined model for urban slum sanitation facilities in India reviewing: - Business models - Architectural designs - Communication interventions - And facility operation models. A total of 119 toilet facilities will be built and evaluated in Bhubaneswar and Cuttack in 2013-14. More than 24,000 persons are expected to directly benefit from this (200 per facility). The hardware design process, which comprises of designs for the physical infrastructure of public toilets, community toilets – Base Layer and community toilets – Enhanced Layer, will include 18-24 unique facility designs that incorporate better ventilation, lighting, landscaping, etc. to improve the overall user experience. Additionally, in order to understand the impact of different management models on usage and maintenance, community toilets are randomly assigned to a privately or community management structure. In addition, to identifying a solution that will produce the most attractive, sustainable and hygienic alternatives to open defecation for slum residents, the program will test a variety of complementary household-level interventions, such as discount coupons for community toilet facilities and varying the pricing structure (monthly passes vs. pay-per-use), etc. The study also incorporates a program of demand generation activities in a subset of communities around community and public facilities. These activities will be used to help communities notice the problems associated with open defecation and develop community cohesion to sanction it. Goal(s): The goal of the project is to provide a replicable model of improved sanitation for urban slums that get used and sustained. Hardware Challenge: - Design facilities that people want to use - Design facilities that adequately address unique sanitation needs ⇒ Are complementary services, such as bathing and defecation stalls, cost-effective and do they drive adoption? Software Challenge: - Facility level: design facility management systems that ensure sustainability o Should toilets be run by professionals or communities? o Do community managed facilities correlate with higher toilet take up than private managed facilities within a one year time period? - Behavioural Challenge: design household and community behavioural interventions and marketing to encourage use ⇒ Can we make toilet use a habit? o Multiple factors influence an individual's decision to practice open defecation. For some individuals defecation in the open is a well-established habit. The habit formation intervention component of this study aims to increase healthy sanitation practices by creating new habits, replacing the old ones. The study plans on doing this by using subtle clues and hints to form new habit routines and reinforcing the new routines with rewards. ⇒ Do time-delimited subsidies correlate with toilet take up more than non-time delimited subsidies over a one year time period? Objectives and Results: Objective 1: To develop an innovative, sustainable, scalable urban community sanitation model which will reduce the incidence of open defecation and improve health among the urban poor in the implementing partner cities of Bhubaneswar and Cuttack. To-date Results: The architectural drawings for the facilities (on a site-specific basis) have been created, the Operations and Maintenance (O&M) guidelines and training manual are drafted, and the tendering process for the first batch of toilet facilities is underway. Objective 2: Create a “toolkit” for successful urban sanitation infrastructure and management interventions based on the implementation and a rigorous evaluation of the project in two cities and disseminate the toolkit broadly through multiple channels. To-date Results: The framework for the toolkit has been developed and is currently being populated with project-specific details by workstream. Learnings and insights will continue to be added to this work-in-progress document as the project progresses. Objective 3: Engage in advocacy to encourage adoption, scale-up and replication of these innovations beyond our intervention sites and throughout cities in Orissa and India. To-date Results: Capacity-building exercises with the local municipal corporations, as well as demand generation activities with the host communities continue to take place as the project prepares for construction. Research or implementation partners: The Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL), Quicksand Start and end date: January 1st, 2012 – March 31st, 2014 +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: - Project newsletters

BIOPROS

2008

Developed with funding from the European Commission BIOPROS research project

These guidelines were elaborated and published under the EU-funded BIOPROS project, where 25 partners from 11 European countries worked together for more than 3 years on approaches that can make wastewater and sewage sludge application in “Short Rotation Plantations (SRP” safer and more efficient. Previous experiences from Sweden, the UK, Estonia and Poland highlighted the potential to use willow plantations for a combination of high-yielding woody biomass production and associated wastewater purification.

155

Decentralised sanitation systems - a comparative case study of pilot projects with separation of flow streams and with consideration of hotel buildings

Sacher, P.

2012

Masterarbeit an der Philosophisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Basel, Switzerland

Summary in German: Anhand von 16 Pilotprojekten mit dezentraler Abwasseraufbereitung, mehrheitlich in Mitteleuropa werden sechs unterschiedliche Arten von Stoffstromtrennung untersucht. Gefragt wird, welche neuartigen Sanitär-systeme für Hotels geeignet sind. Es erfolgt eine Analyse über die Charakteristika der Stoffstromsysteme. Auf einer Datenerhebung basierend, werden Vergleichswerte zu den Parametern Wasserverbrauch, Energie-verbrauch, Flächenverbrauch, Erstellungskosten, Betriebskosten und Wasserkosten berechnet und verglichen. Für die Forschungs- und angewandten Projekte liegen detaillierte Unterlagen vor. Daneben fliessen Expertenmeinungen von Schweizer Planern in die Diskussion ein. Die Hypothese, dass Hotels für eine kommerzielle Markteinführung von dezentralen Abwassersystemen geeignet sind, kann nur teilweise bestätigt werden. Ein Ausblick zeigt, wie dies erfolgen könnte.

287

Various documents on results from research grant

Brdjanovic, D.

2013

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Damir Brdjanovic is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/97-enabling-environment-and-others/4513-large-capacity-building-project-in-sanitation-unesco-ihe-the-netherlands-and-sub-saharan-africa-and-se-asia There are 5 key themes which all research is grouped around: 1. Smart sanitation provision for slums and informal settlements 2. Emergency sanitation following natural and anthropologic disasters 3. Resource oriented decentralized sanitation 4. Low cost wastewater collection and treatment 5. Faecal sludge management A selection of PhD research topics that have already started is given below: - Concentrated Greywater Treatment By Vermifiltration for Urban Poor, by Mr Amare Adugna Tirunah - Domestic Wastewater Treatment for Floating Communities Settlement Area in Indonesia, by Ms. Dyah Wulandari Putri - Combined Solution of UABS Reactor, Polishing Ponds and Rock Filter for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse in Developing Countries, by Mr. Daniel Filipe Cristelo Dias -Rethinking Faecal Sludge Management in Emergency Setting , by Ms Fiona Zakaria -Development of Innovative on Site Faecal Sludge Technologies for High Water Table slum Areas in Kampala, by Mr. Tom Buyi +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Stimulating local innovation on sanitation for the urban poor: Post-graduate research and education project (Information Brochure)

Various documents on results from research grant

Janssen, P.

2013

Technical University of Delft, Netherlands

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Paul Janssen is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/98-resource-recovery-from-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4006-toilet-system-for-waste-separation-and-dewaterization-tu-delft The greatest challenges so far in this research work is integration of all systems which are closing energy & mass balances, as well as adapting technology to context (in our case, urban slums in India). Our plasma gasifier caters the waste of at least 2,000 people every day. This could possible be scaled down in the future. The plasma gasifier generates sufficient energy to sustain itself and possibly a surplus that can used for purposes that could benefit the users or community. For the processing of fecal matter, a significant amount of P-rich ash that can be used as an enhancement for fertilizers. For the processing of urine, the struvite production has high potential to recover phosphorus. Moreover, K,N,S remain in the water and can be used for fertigation purposes We are currently working on a more low-tech proposal (sand filter combined with UV) and might share our findings on the forum at a later stage. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: - none available yet, please check back later

Various documents on results from research grant

Sohail, M.

2013

Loughborough University, UK

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that M. Sohail is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/3937-reinvent-the-toiletlboro-hydrothermal-carbonization-and-odour-issues-user-perceptions-and-experiences Loughborough University is developing a toilet that transforms faeces into a highly energetic combustible material. The schools/departments contributing to the project include: Water, Engineering & Development Centre, (WEDC), Chemical Engineering, Design, Materials, Civil and Building Engineering, Chemistry, Mechanical and Manufacturing, and Systems. The new toilet uses an autothermic, hydrothermal carbonising process to produce material that is safe to handle and could be used for soil conditioner. In parallel with our engineering development we are designing the system to suppress smells and provide users with a positive and comfortable experience. The system is designed to be self-sufficient in terms of energy input, is cost efficient and will work for a single family or community. Authors: Danso-Boateng, E., Holdich, R., Wheatley, A., Martin, S., Sohail, M., Gyi, D. Start and end date: April 2011 - January 2014. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - A toilet system based on hydrothermal carbonization(Durban South Africa, Oct. 2012) 2 - A toilet system based on hydrothermal carbonization (Presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Sayre, E.

2013

Water, Agroforestry, Nutrition and Development Foundation, Incorporated, Philippines

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Elmer Sayre is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/98-resource-recovery-from-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/3730-closing-the-loop-between-sanitation-a-agriculture-in-mindanao-the-philippines-using-lactic-fermentation-wand-fdn Goals of the project: - To address the sanitation needs of the “base of the pyramid” (this means adopt the design, the double-vault ecosan toilets are too expensive in the Philippines), - Provide not only access to sanitation; prevent the spread of diseases, and contamination, but also to make available much-needed fertiliser especially for small-scale farmers. Activities and results: 1) Dry toilet design and installation: The basic design was single-vault with a urine diversion bowl, which was custom-designed to be appropriate in most conditions. Today, four EcoSan models are now available: - Coastal area, marshy areas, river settlements and flooding: raised posts and “hanging” ecosan - Uplands: lightweight, mobile arborloo toilets for mountain areas - Usage by persons with disabilities, toddlers, elderly people: - Urban slums, emergencies and conflicts: single-vault ecosan toilets - Urinals: EcoPees 2) High-grade human waste-mixed organic fertiliser production: Mixing lactic acid bacteria, indigenous microorganisms, charcoal, sawdust, rice hull, banana peel, faeces and urine and other organic materials in cement boxes and leave to mature 3 months. All the materials used for fertilizer production come from local sources such as farmer’s field. Also the needed microorganisms are derived from indigenous microorganisms found in the field. Moreover a rapid composting technique (3-4 weeks) using Trichoderma harziamum (a cellulose decomposer available at the Department of Agriculture) was tested. Also a anaerobic process was piloted using home-produced indigenous micro-organisms 3) Crop response to human-waste mixed fertiliser: Urine and urine faeces-mixed organic fertiliser were tested for rice, bananas, coconuts and mahogany. Urine fertilisation showed increasing harvest for eggplant, pechay, water spinach, and green mustard compared to a control and only slightly less then compared to the vegetables produced with synthetic fertiliser. Compared to a control, either urine or faeces-mixed alone enhanced the harvest for rice. When both together were applied, a similar growth then with commercial fertiliser was achieved. Banana showed an increased harvest with either urine and feces-mixed (the combination was not tested). Coconut did not show a significant difference to control. Mahogany growth was increased with urine, but not with faeces-mixed alone. 4) Secondary treatment of faeces to remove pathogens: The treatment of faeces with vermi-composting using African night crawlers (Eudrilus Eugenia) was tested. After 5 month, Ascaris ova were still present but after 6 months completely gone. Main challenges include: sources for earthworms; maintaining humidity; to feed regularly with organic matter and the problem of alkalinity due to the usage of ashes in the toilets. 5) Odour minimization: a homemade concoction of lactic acid bacteria and indigenous microorganism mixed to sawdust and charcoal was used as faeces cover. Chopped twigs or wood can be used instead of sawdust if not available. 6) Marketing the toilets: 3 micro-financing institutions were tested (WAND-Microfinance, Asset-based Community Development with Equity Foundation, Tuburan Para Libertad Foundation). It worked best when integrated into the loan component of clients but with separate more socialized agreements (i.e. longer paying period and less interest levied. Moreover, the “no toilet, no loan” policy does work. A promising marketing avenue is portable dry toilets during emergency which we tested during Typhoon Sendong. Aside from micro-financing, we successfully marketed our toilets via social networking and word-by-mouth. Authors Document 1: Sayre, E. V., Sayre, J. C. Z. Document 2: Gensch, R., Miso, A., Itchon, G., Sayre, E. Document 3: Sayre, E., von Münch, E. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - By: Elmer V. Sayre, Ph.D. and Jed Christian Z. Sayre 2 - Low-cost sustainable sanitation solutions for Mindanao and the Philippines: A practical construction field guide 3 - Rural community and school UDD toilets in Misamis Oriental, Libertad, Initao and Manticao, Philippines

Various documents on results from research grant

Sánchez, T.

2013

Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Toni Sánchez is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/98-resource-recovery-from-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4508-increase-of-biogas-production-using-low-cost-nanoparticles-universitat-autonoma-de-barcelona-spain#4508 Short description of the project: We have observed in batch experiments how the introduction on iron oxide nanoparticles in a standard anaerobic digester of wastewater sludge is able to increase the production of biogas by more than 70%. These experiments have been conducted at low-scale (1 L) and using pure substrates as cellulose. Our main interest is to see if this increase in the biogas production and, inconsequence, in renewable energy produced from wastes, is also observed under realistic conditions, that is: At least, pilot scale reactors With continuous feed With other wastes, such as MSW Goal(s): To increase the production of biogas from sludge and other organic solid wastes using low cost iron oxide biocompatible nanoparticles (FeNPs) and the simultaneous production of high quality sanitized compost. Objectives (or activities or key research components): Scale-up the anaerobic digestion to develop continuous or semi-continuous processes, similar to those of full-scale reactors. Scale-up the production of iron oxide NPs to have an estimation of the production costs of these materials at full-scale. To test if the increase production of biogas is stable in time and the digester is able to overcome the typical feed variations when using wastewater sludge as substrate. To test other real wastes to determine the feasibility of the process (for instance, MSW and manure). To produce high-quality compost from the digested materials. Start and end date: November 1st 2011- October 31th, 2013. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: - none available yet, please check back later

Various documents on results from research grant

Cookson, N.

2013

Quantitative BioSciences, Inc., San Diego, California, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Natalie Cookson is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4541-algae-for-the-effective-and-economical-treatment-of-waste-quantitative-biosciences-inc-usa Short description of the project: The goal of our project is to develop a full-scale demonstration of a "waste farm," an efficient, easy-to-operate, and novel waste treatment system that will involve mass cultivating algae for the production of bioenergy and a valuable live feed crop for the local community using waste as the feedstock. We are using next-generation biotechnology to characterize and evolve native strains of algae for higher productivity in order to maximize the potential for energy and revenue generation. Goal(s): The goal of our project is to develop a full-scale demonstration of a “waste farm,” which could ultimately be set up on the periphery of small urban areas in the developing world. Mobile vacuum trucks will collect human feces from latrine pits and septic tanks as well as cow dung from urban cattle sheds and transport it to the treatment facility for processing and ultimately for the generation of energy and revenue. Our technology will not rely on sewer systems, and it will use a sophisticated computational control system to enable remote monitoring of the treatment quality to minimize the need for on-site maintenance and service. For our Phase I work, we have developed an experimental scale set up of such a waste farm, and we have demonstrated the successful treatment of waste using comprehensive data. In addition, we have shown that the algae grown in our treatment system can be used as an aquatic feed. Objectives: Objective 1: Develop a full-scale waste treatment plant. Our focus for Phase II of our project will be on the design, engineering, and testing of a wastewater treatment system that could ultimately be replicated and implemented as waste farms in developing urban areas. We are collaborating with the Van Ommering Dairy in Lakeside, CA, and our process will involve passing a large volume of waste (150,000 liters per day) through a series of biological processes that we will construct on the dairy (Fig. 1, see attached below at the end of the post) to progressively treat waste and convert organic material and nutrients into energy and valuable biomass. The waste will begin in an anaerobic lagoon/digester that will promote sedimentation and anaerobic breakdown of waste. This large lagoon (22 million liters) will be covered to prevent the escape of methane, carbon dioxide, and odors. The waste will next pass to a set of high rate algae ponds (230,000 liters), which will support vigorous algae growth for the uptake of nutrients and enhanced disinfection of the water. Finally, wastewater will be transferred to a fairy shrimp pond (319,000 liters) for algae filtration and to a maturation pond (1.2 million liters) for final treatment that promotes removal of micro-organisms by solar radiation, sedimentation and protozoan grazing. Tilapia will be grown in the maturation pond, feeding on any remaining algae. Objective 2: Algae identification and evolution. Our innovative approach to enhancing algae-based wastewater treatment will involve the novel application of two avenues of biotechnology (Fig. 2). First, we will use next-generation sequencing to characterize the native algae species that grow in our waste treatment ponds. Initial experiments have revealed hundreds of species of algae and bacteria in our system, and we will use this technology to fully characterize the ecology of the ponds in order to understand how it evolves over time and to determine which species are dominant. We will then use novel microfluidic technology pioneered by our group to rapidly evolve the species of interest for enhanced productivity. Once we have achieved the desired characteristics, we will reintroduce these enhanced native strains back into the pond system, and we will seed the ponds as necessary to maintain the strain of interest in the continuously growing algae culture. Objective 3: Development of fairy shrimp as a feed. Prominent algae species determined by the sequencing efforts will be cultured in lab and fed to fairy shrimp. Fairy shrimp eggs are capable of drying out, becoming cysts that are capable of withstanding heat, cold, and prolonged desiccation, making them an excellent feed product as they can be shipped dry and then rehydrated into a live feed (Fig. 3). We will experiment with feeding quantities and culture conditions to develop a protocol to optimize the conversion of algae to fairy shrimp biomass. On the farm, we will construct smaller-scale experimental ponds where we can test the viability and proliferation of the fairy shrimp in a competitive outdoor environment and can develop protocols for the collection and desiccation of cysts for sale or use as a live feed for fish. Start and end date: End date 30 April 2013, final report due 15 June 2013 +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Phase I award financial and scientific report: Algae for the effective and economical treatment of waste

Drechsel, P., Scott, C. A., Raschid-Sally, L., Redwood, M., Bahri, A. (eds.)

2010

International Water Management Institute (IWMI), first published by Earthscan with the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in the UK and USA in 2010

This book is written for practitioners, researchers and graduate students in environmental and public health, sanitary and agricultural engineering, and wastewater irrigation management in developing countries. In particular, it should be useful for all those working to assess and mitigate health risks from the use of wastewater and faecal sludge in agriculture, under conditions where wastewater treatment is absent or inadequate to safeguard public health. In this respect, the book builds on and complements the international Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater published in 2006 by the World Health Organization in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the United Nations Environment Programme. The book adds new data on the cost-effectiveness of treatment and post-treatment measures for health-risk reduction, discusses ways to facilitate behaviour-change towards safer practices and adds new dimensions to reuse-oriented governance of wastewater. The overall sequence of sections addresses key issues concomitant with wastewater irrigation in developing countries (risk assessment, risk mitigation, wastewater use governance), while the individual chapters aim at concise information primarily on microbiological but also chemical risks. The authors link water and health to the establishment and implementation of effective, affordable and efficient options for risk reduction. Targeting developing countries, the book also tries to address situations where legislation and institutional capacities are constraints and where the availability of data for risk assessments is limited. We expect that the book will influence further applied multidisciplinary research on wastewater use related risk and its mitigation. This volume would not have been possible without the support of the International Development Research Centre and the Google Foundation. Numerous other funding bodies supported work presented in individual chapters. Special acknowledgement is due to the Challenge Program on Water and Food of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, the World Health Organization, and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations for their continued support. French version available here: http://www.susana.org/lang-en/library/library?view=ccbktypeitem&type=2&id=1719

Various documents on results from research grant

Cofie, O.

2013

International Water Management Institute, Accra, Ghana

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Olufunke Cofie and Josiane Nikiema are leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/98-resource-recovery-from-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4391-developing-fortified-excreta-pellets-for-use-in-agriculture-project Short description of the project: Excreta are rich source of essential plant nutrients and organic matter that can be recycled as fertilizer-cum-soil conditioner – an effect not shared by chemical fertilizers and of dare need in tropical soils. While the principles that underlie the use of excreta in agriculture and associated benefits are known, the wide use of excreta is still constrained by factors such as the cost of transportation and handling as well as negative perception of communities with regards to using FS in agriculture. To address both challenges, this project hypothesized that producing excreta pellets could be the solution. The project explored ways to produce safe, efficient and cost effective fertilizer pellets from FS. The project focused on developing a marketable product from this waste, and explored options for pelletization of fecal sludge composts to increase; marketability, general acceptability, ease of handling and on-farm distribution, and to improve fertilizer use efficiency and affordability. The project involved a multi-disciplinary team of economists, environmental scientists, agronomists and engineers. The collective name for our various excreta based fertilizer formulations is referred to as Fortifer. Objective: The main goal of the project is to convert excreta into safe and efficient fertilizer pellets that could enhance agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa and make fecal sludge reuse attractive and profitable for private entrepreneurs. Results: The fecal sludge was initially dried, to remove excess water and sanitized through gamma irradiation (I-DFS), composting (C-DFS) and co-composting with sawdust (C-SDFS). For C-DFS, enrichment was performed through addition of nitrogenous fertilizer, to raise the level of nitrogen to 3% (EC-DFS). Each of these materials was then individually used for the production of cylindrical pellets. A binding material consisting of clay or cassava starch, pregelatinized or irradiated, at concentrations between 0 and 10 % in weight was added prior to pelletization. Equipment used in pelletization process was constructed in Ghana. This study revealed that optimal moisture level, needed in the pelletizer’s feed, is highly dependent on material type with the lowest water amounts required for EC-DFS and I-DFS and the highest ones for C-SDFS. It is also affected by binder type and concentration, clay and lower concentrations requiring more water than irradiated starch and higher concentrations, respectively. The pellet’s length distribution was strongly affected by the starch pretreatment method as well as the type of pelletized material. Stability of pellets was affected by type of pelletized material, binding material’s concentration and moisture content. Producing dried pellets ensure reduction in the volume of fertilizer required in the field (50-80 % of the initial volume). Research or implementation partners: • Tema Metropolitan Assembly, Ghana • Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Accra, Ghana • Biotechnology and Nuclear Agriculture Research Institute (BNARI), Accra, Ghana • Valley View University, Accra, Ghana • University of Ibadan, Nigeria Start and end date: May 2011 to April 2013 Authors: Nikiema, J., Cofie, O., Impraim, R., Drechsel, P. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Fortified excreta pellets for agriculture (Durban South Africa, Oct. 2012) 2 - Fortified excreta pellets for agriculture: An update on research in Ghana (Presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Cheng, Y.-L., Saunder, S.

2013

University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Yu-Ling Cheng (PI) and Stephen Sauder (PM) are leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4123-unit-operations-approach-for-rapid-disinfection-of-human-waste-university-of-toronto-usa-and-bangladesh Short description of the project: To describe how it works, one needs to follow the process from beginning to end: the waste is collected through a squat-style toilet (the target market is Asia and Africa, where such toilets are common). Waste will then be separated into liquid and solid streams using standard de-watering techniques. Disinfection of the solid stream will proceed by means of smouldering, a flameless combustion process similar to what occurs inside of a coal barbecue. For the liquid stream, a sand / UV filter will be used. We are still in the process of narrowing design pathways with a potential for a different unit approach to liquid disinfection. Objectives: The goal of this project is to develop a technology for treating solid waste streams through mechanical dehydration and smoldering that will sanitize feces within 24 hours. We also intend to develop a method for sanitizing urine through membrane filtration and ultraviolet disinfection. Essentially we are building a household scale wastewater treatment plant. Start and end date: June 2011 until 31 January 2014 Research or implementation partners: Western University and University of Queensland Authors: Fishman, Z., Mee Y., Jung, T., Pironi, P., Krajcovic, M., Melamed, S., Webb, M., Torero, J. L., Gerhard, J. I., Diosady, L. L., Lawryshyn, Y., Edwards, E., Kortschot, M. T., Cheng, Y. L. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - A unit operations approach for rapid disinfection of human waste based on drying/smoldering of solid and sand filtration/uv disinfection of liquid waste (presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Fioravanti, M.,

2013

Fundación In Terris, Ecuador

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Marcos Fioravanti is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/106-user-interface/4079-the-earth-auger-toilet-innovation-in-waterless-sanitation-fundacion-in-terris-ecuador Goal(s): The goal of this project was to develop several prototypes of a mechanised, pedal-operated, low-cost, easy-to-use, odourless urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT). Objectives (or activities or key research components): 1. Development of prototypes: Several prototypes of “El Taladro de la Tierra“ (The Earth Auger) were designed based on earlier work Dr. Henry had done at the University of Washington. These are decentralized pedal-operated urine-diverting dry toilets (UDDT) where diverted urine is infiltrated into the ground and faeces are being composted. The main innovations with the prototypes were the mechanised, foot-pedal-actuated dry-flush system and sawdust delivery systems. When the pedal is operated the faeces, cleansing paper and automatically added sawdust are mechanically processed through a pipe with an auger inside, which mixes, aerates and moves them through a composting chamber to storage (e.g., buckets). In storage it is detained for an additional 1-5 months (depending upon number of users) for compost stability and pathogen kill prior to being used as a soil amendment. Direct handling of excreta by the user is thus not required as the whole process is pedal-operated until harvest. The urine is harvested separately in hose-connected containers, or mixed with wash water and used in a grey water system. The toilets differ in price and number of accessories: in mass production the different units are expected to cost between US$150 and US$ 300. 2. Testing: Six families in Ecuador tested two different Earth Auger prototypes. The overall results were great acceptability and all families would be willing to pay around US$150 for the toilet. Concerns included the sawdust handling as it could be associated with breathing allergies, the potential for lever to get broken (happening in only one of the tested prototypes), and being able to aim the urine stream into the urine diversion component. Preliminary pathogen analyses suggested more rapid dieoff with our system compared to traditional vault systems (we will focus on pathogen dieoff in our future work). 3. Improvement of prototypes: The major following improvements have been identified and will be tested: Single or double-augered pipe in the compost chamber; introducing urine in the compost auger system; pedal construction with direct gears instead of chains; optimisation of the system to avoid any risk of the auger jamming; design of storage chamber(s) for easy handling and replacement; design of pedestals and seats for infants; and alternative materials for sawdust. Start and end date: April 2011 to October 2012 +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - A mechanized, pedal operated urine diverted dry toilet (presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Ren, Z.

2013

University of Colorado, Boulder, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Zhiyong Ren is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/98-resource-recovery-from-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4496-bioelectric-toilets-for-waste-treatment-and-energy-production-university-of-colorado-usa Goal(s): The goal of this project is to develop a low cost and easy-to-operate bioelectric reactor that uses microbes to break down waste and convert it to usable electricity and chemicals. This technology could provide a self-sustainable solution for communities in need of both sanitary waste disposal and an energy supply. Activities or key research components: We focus on developing low cost and easy-to-operate bioelectric toilets to treat fecal sludge and directly convert waste to usable electric energy and chemicals. The principle and operation of bioelectric toilets are relatively simple, but it represents a completely new method for high quality energy and chemical recovery from waste. In the reactor anode chamber, microorganisms degrade fecal sludge as their substrate and transfer electrons to the anode during anaerobic respiration. The electrons then flow to the cathode through external circuits, where they are harvested for electricity generation or chemical production. The electrodes can be low-cost and locally available materials. Indigenous bacteria can be used as catalysts on both the anode and air-cathode to reduce cost and promote sludge treatment. Compared to current sludge processing technologies, the bioelectric toilet has several advantages that are suitable for onsite application in urban poor communities: 1. Our lab and field tests showed that the bioelectric toilet stabilizes and degrades >80% of fecal waste within a few days. Odor generating ammonia was removed by >75% in the same period. Reactor design shows that a 3-5 m3 reactor can sustainably handle the waste produced by a 100 people community. 2. The toilet doesn’t need any energy input except occasional manual mixing, so the electricity produced can be directly used by the community. Our prototype reactor produced 8 W/m3 electricity in the lab, and our field demonstration showed LED lights was powered by the toilet. 3. Experimental results showed that microbial communities were resilient to the variations of sludge loadings and environmental condition changes. Compared to the reduced performance of anaerobic digestion at low temperature, our system can keep its performance at even 4 °C. 4. The requirements of operation and maintenance of an established toilet can be minimal, as the microbial activity will be self-sustained and the sludge volume will be reduced significantly. The system can also be easily converted to an anaerobic digester if needed. Research or implementation partners: Water for People, Universities in several Countries in Africa +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: - none available yet, please check back later

Various documents on results from research grant

Ieropoulos, I.

2013

University of the West of England, Bristol; Bristol Robotics Laboratory, UK

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Ioannis Ieropoulos is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/98-resource-recovery-from-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4185-urine-tricity-electricity-from-urine-university-of-the-west-of-england-uk Short description of the project: The MFC is an energy transducer, with live (non-pathogenic) microorganisms as the bio-catalyst. It consists of two half-cells:- an anode (negative terminal) and a cathode (positive terminal) that are typically materialized in two different chambers. Microbes typically grow on the anode and continue with their normal metabolic processes. In the presence of an electrode and under the pressures of redox potential difference and consequent electrophilic attraction, they interact with the electrode and make it part of their natural anaerobic respiration, i.e. directly or indirectly transfer electrons onto the electrode. Microorganisms inside the anode of an MFC form a biofilm of fixed thickness, dictated by the ability and rate of electron transfer for respiration. These microorganisms form a stable semi-solid matrix onto the electrode surface, which becomes permanently stuck, robust and resistant, even at high flow rates. New daughter cells or other microbes, which have no access to the electrode, will remain in the anode until being flushed out. A very important feature of MFCs is the inherent link between electricity generation and waste (sludge or urine) break-down. This means that the higher the energy output levels, the better is the waste compound breakdown and the higher is the production of water at the cathode [2 incoming electrons and 2 protons per single water molecule]. Although different approaches can be employed for optimizing the MFC technology, the challenge of scaling up for practical applications remains unsolved. It has nonetheless been shown that higher energy density levels and optimum biofilm/electrode surface area–to–volume ratios, reside within smaller scale MFCs. This will be the scientific basis for the proposed work to succeed. Goal(s): The goal of this project is to recover useful levels of electrical energy directly from urine, and thus convert an existing – entirely unexploited – waste into a sustainable fuel for the future, with concomitant clean water production. Objectives: (i) high power production from MFC stack; (ii) high (collective) clean water production from the MFC stack; (iii) kill-rates of introduced pathogens as a result of normal MFC stack operation and (iv) modification of existing prototype urinal/latrine to integrate with MFCs. Start and end date: Start date, 1 May 2012; End date, 30 April 2013; final report due 15 June 2013 Authors: Ieropoulos, I., Greenman, J., Lewis, D., Knoop, O. Further Reading (journal articles): 1- Urine utilisation by microbial fuel cells; energy fuel for the future Authors: Ieropoulos, I., Greenman, J., Melhuish, C. Abstract: This communication reports for the first time the direct utilisation of urine in MFCs for the production of electricity. Different conversion efficiencies were recorded, depending on the amount treated. Elements such as N, P, K can be locked into new biomass, thus removed from solution, resulting in recycling without environmental pollution. 2- Miniature microbial fuel cells and stacks for urine utilisation Authors: Ieropoulos, I., Greenman, J., Melhuish, C. Abstract: MFCs are becoming a stronger contender in the area of alternative energy sources and show great promise in utilising a wide variety of organic sources. This paper describes the utilisation of neat undiluted urine as the main feedstock for different types of individual MFCs and stacks of small-scale MFCs, for direct electricity production, with conversion efficiencies of >50%. The smallest MFC (1.4 mL total volume) produced equal amounts of power to that produced by larger MFCs (6.25 mL), resulting in increased power densities. Power densities of 4.93 mW/m2 (absolute power of 1.5 mW) were recorded when 48 small-scale MFCs were connected as a stack and fed with urine. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using urine as an untreated fuel and that improved power outputs can be achieved through MFC miniaturisation and multiplication into stacks. 3- Microbial fuel cells for robotics: energy autonomy through artificial symbiosis Authors: Ieropoulos, I., Greenman, J., Melhuish, C., Horsfield, I. Abstract: The development of the microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology has seen an enormous growth over the last hundred years since its inception by Potter in 1911. The technology has reached a high level of maturity with a growing scientific community. The highest level of activity has been recorded over the last decade and it is perhaps considered commonplace that MFCs are primarily suitable for stationary, passive wastewater treatment applications. Sceptics have certainly not considered MFCs as serious contenders in the race for developing renewable energy technologies. Yet this is the only type of alternative system that can convert organic waste—widely distributed around the globe—directly into electricity, and therefore, the only technology that will allow artificial agents to autonomously operate in a plethora of environments. This Minireview describes the history and current state-of-the-art regarding MFCs in robotics and their vital role in artificial symbiosis and autonomy. Furthermore, the article demonstrates how pursuing practical robotic applications can provide insights of the core MFC technology in general. 4- MFC-cascade stacks maximise COD reduction and avoid voltage reversal under adverse conditions Authors: Ledezma, P., Greenman, J., Ieropoulos, I. Abstract: Six continuous-flow Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) configured as a vertical cascade and tested under different electrical connections are presented. When in parallel, stable operation and higher power and current densities than individual MFCs were observed, despite substrate imbalances. The cascading dynamic allowed for a cumulative COD reduction of >95% in approximately 5.7 h, equivalent to 7.97 kg COD m−3 d−1. Under a series configuration, the stack exhibited considerable losses until correct fluidic/electrical insulation of the units was applied, upon which the stack also exhibited superior performance. In both electrical configurations, the 6MFC system was systematically starved for up to 15 d, with no significant performance degradation. The results from the 14-month trials, demonstrate that cascade-stacking of small units can result in enhanced electricity production (vs single large units) and treatment rates without using expensive catalysts. It is also demonstrated that substrate imbalances and starvation do not necessarily result in cell-voltage reversal. 5- Current generation in membraneless single chamber microbial fuel cells (MFCs) treating urine Authors: Santoroa, C., Ieropoulos, I., Greenman, J., Cristiani, P., Vadas, T., Mackay, A., Li, B. Abstract: This study investigated a novel treatment process for human urine in membraneless single-chamber microbial fuel cells (SCMFCs). The performances of SCMFCs with Pt-based or Pt-free cathode were tested for over 1000 hours of operation. The pH of the anodic solution increased from 5.4–6.4 to 9.0 due to the urea hydrolysis, which consequently decreased the anodic performance even though the cathode was not affected, indicating that the MFCs were anode-limited. The solution conductivity increased up to 3 times the initial value. The initial current generated by the Pt-free cathodes SCMFCs was 0.13–0.15 mA, and stabilized at 0.1 mA. The Pt-based cathode SCMFC decreased from 0.18–0.23 mA to 0.13 mA. This study showed that high pH caused by urea hydrolysis lowered the anodic reactions and the SCMFCs overall performance. The Pt-free cathode performance was comparable to that of Pt-based cathodes, thus offering a cost effective alternative for future developments. 6- Maximising electricity production by controlling the biofilm specific growth rate in microbial fuel cells Authors: Ledezma, P., Greenman, J., Ieropoulos, I. Abstract: The aim of this work is to study the relationship between growth rate and electricity production in perfusion-electrode microbial fuel cells (MFCs), across a wide range of flow rates by co-measurement of electrical output and changes in population numbers by viable counts and optical density. The experiments hereby presented demonstrate, for the first time to the authors’ knowledge, that the anodic biofilm specific growth rate can be determined and controlled in common with other loose matrix perfusion systems. Feeding with nutrient-limiting conditions at a critical flow rate (50.8 mL h−1) resulted in the first experimental determination of maximum specific growth rate μmax (19.8 day−1) for Shewanella spp. MFC biofilms, which is considerably higher than those predicted or assumed via mathematical modelling. It is also shown that, under carbon-energy limiting conditions there is a strong direct relationship between growth rate and electrical power output, with μmax coinciding with maximum electrical power production. 7- The overshoot phenomenon as a function of internal resistance in microbial fuel cells Authors: Winfield, J., Ieropoulos, I., Greenman, J., Dennis, J. Abstract: A method for assessing the performance of microbial fuel cells (MFCs) is the polarisation sweep where different external resistances are applied at set intervals (sample rates). The resulting power curves often exhibit an overshoot where both power and current decrease concomitantly. To investigate these phenomena, small-scale (1 mL volume) MFCs operated in continuous flow were subjected to polarisation sweeps under various conditions. At shorter sample rates the overshoot was more exaggerated and power generation was overestimated; sampling at 30 s produced 23% higher maximum power than at 3 min. MFCs with an immature anodic biofilm (5 days) exhibited a double overshoot effect, which disappeared after a sufficient adjustment period (5 weeks). Mature MFCs were subject to overshoot when the anode was fed weak (1 mM acetate) feedstock with low conductivity (1500 μS). MFCs developed in a pH neutral environment produced overshoot after the anode had been exposed to acidic (pH 3) conditions for 24 h. In contrast, changes to the cathode both in terms of pH and varying catholyte conductivity, although affecting power output did not result in overshoot suggesting that this is an anodic phenomenon. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Energy production and sanitation improvement using microbial fuel cells (paper at FSM2 Conference, Durban South Africa, Oct. 2012) 2 - Energy production and sanitation improvement using microbial fuel cells (Presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Mao, Y.

2013

University of Texas - Pan American, Edinburg, Texas, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Yuanbing Mao is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/106-user-interface/4295-novel-spray-paints-for-self-decontaminating-latrine-coatings-university-of-texas-pan-american-usa Short description of the project: The proposed spray paints consist of heterogeneous nanomaterials with three nanocomponents. Each component is tailored to address a different demand (e.g. high decontaminating efficiency, high contaminant adsorption, and broad solar spectrum utilization), so the resulting paints will exhibit synergic properties by integrating the individual nanocomponents, realizing full potential of latrine coatings in terms of self-decontaminating performance (e.g. durable, affordable, able to be mass produced, easy to clean, and smooth). More specifically, one nanocomponent can absorb visible and infrared lights, another nanocomponent possesses strong adsorption capability to contaminants, bacteria and fungi, and a nanosized ultraviolet photocatalyst serves as the base component. With appropriate chemical modifications, the proposed three-component nanomaterials can be readily incorporated into commercial spray paints as self-decontaminating latrine coatings with enhance cleanliness. Goal(s): The goal of this project is to develop spray paints that will exhibit synergic properties by integrating the individual nanocomponents, realizing full potential of latrine coatings in terms of self-decontaminating performance. Objectives: The main objective of this project is to make more efficient use of sunlight by the resulting coatings in practical sanitary applications. It also aims to select stable nanocomponents to make the coatings resilient to aggressive environment. Moreover, the spray paints are attractive and flexible by possessing various colors like existing paints and being fitted into various pan/squatting platforms for affordable applications. Start and end date: 27 September 2011 to 31 October 2013, final report due 15 January 2014 Authors: Mao, Y., Bravo, J. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Presentation on photocatalytic decomposition of dyes by TiO2@C nanocomposite (April, 2013)

Various documents on results from research grant

Malak, H. K.

2013

American Environmental Systems, Inc., Ellicott City, Maryland, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Henry K. Malak is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/106-user-interface/4490-photoactive-silicones-for-self-cleaning-and-antimicrobial-sanitary-units-american-environmental-systems-inc-usa Short description of the project: In our Phase-I project we propose to incorporate recent advances in nanotechnology and hydrophobicity of silicone materials for the development and application of novel, cost-effective, durable, antimicrobial and self-cleaning surfaces for sanitary units and sanitary facilities. Goal(s): Our overall aim is to develop and disseminate unique, cost effective, self-cleaning, durable, and antimicrobial coatings applicable to non-piped and minimal-water sanitation projects for both the urban and rural poor. Objectives: 1. Develop prototypic self-cleaning and antimicrobial coatings. 2. Perform cost-benefit and process analyses for making effective coatings efficiently to meet Gates Foundation guidelines for costs of commercial sanitary units to less than $0.05/user/day. 3. Establish those working collaborations and/or partnerships with Gates grantees, companies, and international organizations in developing countries to fulfill our Objective 1 and their antimicrobial and cleanliness needs for sanitary projects. Start and end date: 01 November, 2011 to October 31 2014, final report due 15 December 2014  Research or implementation partners for Phase II: Sanergy Limited, Nairobi Kenya and PID, Ltd Mbazwana, Mbazwana in Africa, and Eram Scientific Solutions, Kerala, India. Authors: Malak, H., Malak, I., Dicello, J. F. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1- Poster: Photoactive silicones for self-cleaning and antibacterial sanitary units (August, 2012)

Langergraber, G.

2013

Water Sci Technol 67(10), 2133-2140, doi: 10.2166/wst.2013.122

The main objective of sanitation systems is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. In order to be sustainable a sanitation system has to be not only economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally appropriate, but it should also protect the environment and the natural resources. ‘Resourcesoriented sanitation’ describes the approach in which human excreta and water from households are recognized as resource made available for re-use. Nowadays ‘resources-oriented sanitation’ is understood in the same way as ‘ecological sanitation’. For resources-oriented sanitation systems to be truly sustainable they have to comply with the definition of sustainable sanitation as given by the Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA, www.susana.org). Constructed treatment wetlands meet the basic criteria of sustainable sanitation systems by preventing diseases, protecting the environment, being an affordable, acceptable, and simple technology. Additionally, constructed treatment wetlands produce treated wastewater with high quality which is fostering reuse which makes them applicable in resources-oriented sanitation systems. The paper discusses the features that make constructed treatment wetlands a suitable solution in sustainable resources-oriented sanitation systems, the importance of system thinking for sustainability as well as key factors for sustainable implementation of constructed wetland systems.

10

U-ACT: The urban affordable clean toilets project, Technical Factsheet

Guenther, I., Niwagaba, B., Luethi, C., Horst, A., Mulongo, P., Grueter, R.

2012

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ), Switzerland

The urban affordable clean Toilets (U-ACT) project, headed by the Centre for Development and Cooperation (NADEL) of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ), aims at overcoming the constraints to private sanitation investment in poor urban areas. Field research was conducted in 40 randomly selected low-income areas of Uganda's capital Kampala where people rely on on-site sanitation. The sanitation situation in these urban slum zones is characterised by a high number of user's per toilet, and full or overflowing latrines that are not regularly emptied. The U-ACT project activities include the construction of ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines. This factsheet provides information on the construction and cost details.

4

The correlation between number of users and toilet hygiene

Guenther, I., Niwagaba, B., Luethi, C., Horst, A., Mosler, H.-J., Tumwebaze, K.

2012

Research for Policy 2, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETHZ), Switzerland

The international debate on the question of whether shared and/or public sanitation facilities should be considered improved is still open. The concern is that a shared sanitation facility cannot be maintained in hygienic conditions when used by too many people. The analysis of 1’500 randomly selected toilets in the urban slums of Kampala showed that only 22 percent of households have access to private sanitation facilities; the remaining 78 percent share their toilet with an average of 6 households. There is a clear and strong correlation between number of users and the condition and cleanliness of a toilet stance. Less than 20 percent of private toilets are dirty, whereas 60 percent of sanitation facilities are dirty if they are shared by more than 10 households. This policy brief asserts that toilet facilities shared by not more than four households can be considered “acceptable” or improved, with “only” about 25 percent classified as dirty by an objective evaluation.

4

Four innovative sanitation projects in Zambia - Faecal sludge management aspects and general lessons

Mulenga, J., Blume, S.

2013

Water Information Network (WIN-SA), South Africa

The DTF finances the largest sanitation portfolio in Zambian urban low-income areas currently. Sanitation projects are complex and require dedicated time and resources. Project implementation provides plenty capacity building opportunity for all project partners. Households are willing and can contribute to the project costs more substantially. A significant part of toilet costs shall be financed by households or landlords. Sanitation marketing, consistent communication and engagement of local leadership is crucial. Usually legal enforcement of sanitation relevant by-laws is not effective in low-income areas. Therefore integrated planning and engagement of local authorities is a crucial element for project success. Business models around the sanitation chain exist (e.g. design, construction, supervision of projects, private pit emptier). The private sector can play a crucial role, though usually access to finances is a challenge for them. The marketing of human manure and biogas has good potential in Zambia, though currently, only limited commercial orientation on sanitation in general and its potential of revenue generation by activation of reuse chain can be recognised in Zambia.

16

Learning from Alfred Nzo DM's Zonal Distribution Approach

Still, D.

2013

Water Information Network (WIN-SA), South Africa

The ANDM Sanitation Job Creation Programme commenced in 2004 and has proved the success of its zone site service centre approach. Two of the original nine zone sites were lost to the Sisonke District Municipality, but the other seven are still in operation. Several thousand jobs have been sustained from these sites, and in the process over 80 000 VIP latrines have been built. Job creation and skills transfer have been major aims of the programme, and by and large these aims have been achieved. A key prerequisite for this approach is district wide long term sanitation planning, as opposed to piecemeal village by village planning. As the programme moves into what will probably be its penultimate phase, the District will be looking to find ways to ensure that both the zone sites and the workers and small contractors associated with them are able to continue contributing to the on-going development of the region.

20

Various documents on results from research grant

Hoffmann, V.

2013

University of Maryland, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Vivian Hoffmann is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/97-enabling-environment-and-others/3858-research-grant-on-menstrual-management-a-sanitation-systems-university-of-maryland-usa-and-south-africa-india Short description of the project: The project will address the interactions between menstrual management and sanitation, using a systems approach that integrates an understanding of the sanitation hardware with women’s practices, needs and willingness to pay for menstrual management products. The scope of work includes: 1) a comprehensive literature review to synthesize current knowledge about the interaction between women's menstrual management practices and sanitation systems, 2) detailed case studies in two urban locations, and 3) a randomized product dissemination and demand trial where women will be offered to opportunity to test and then choose among alternative menstrual management products. Goal(s): This study aims to understand: -The experiences of women in managing their menstrual periods, including the products that they use, their perceptions of the sanitation facilities they use, and how their periods may impact their daily routines. -Women’s preferences for alternative menstrual management products that may have less impact on sanitation systems. -The influence of women’s social networks on product adoption and other behaviours. Objectives: -Synthesize the state of current knowledge through a review of the literature on women’s perceptions and cultural beliefs around menstruation, and menstrual practices. -Understand the impact of menstrual practices on sanitation systems through a global survey of sanitation managers. -Document how menstrual products are disposed of in two contexts: Durban, South Africa and Bihar, India. Investigate the acceptability of a reusable silicon menstrual cup among adult women in two contexts: Durban, South Africa and Bihar, India. Understand determinants of, and barriers to, product experimentation and continued use, including experience of peers. -Test how prior use of a disposable menstrual product (sanitary pads) affects demand for a reusable product (the menstrual cup) through a randomized controlled trial in Bihar, India. Research or implementation partners: PATH, Stockholm Environment Institute, Columbia University, Wits Health Consortium, Mount Holyoke College, and the University of KwaZulu-Natal Further Reading (Journal articles): - Sommer, Marni, Marianne Kjellen, and Chibesa Pensulo. “Girls’ and Women’s Unmet Needs for Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM): The Interactions between MHM and Sanitation Systems in Low-Income Countries”, accepted for publication by Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development - Sebastian, Ashwini, Vivian Hoffmann, and Sarah Adelman, “Menstrual Management in Low Income Countries: Needs and Trends”, forthcoming in April 2013 issue of Waterlines A report by partners on this project from the Stockholm Environmental Institute, Marianne Kjellén, Chibesa Pensulo, Petter Nordqvist and Madeleine Fogde, is available online: Global review of sanitation systems trends and interactions with menstrual management practices http://www.susana.org/lang-en/library/library?view=ccbktypeitem&type=2&id=1556 +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1- Menstrual management and sanitation systems study overview (India) 2- Preliminary baseline survey findings, (Durban South Africa, Oct. 2012) 3- Review of sanitation system interactions with menstrual hygiene practices (Presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Hughes, R.

2013

Phnom Penh, Cambodia

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Robert Hughes is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/98-resource-recovery-from-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/3694-energy-recovery-a-waste-treatment-with-floating-biodigesters-tonle-sap-lake-cambodia-llee Short description of the project: This project will develop and trial floating and small-scale biodigesters to convert human and animal waste to biogas for energy and treated waste for fertilizer, while improving the sanitation and public health outcomes of communities living in challenging environments such as water-based and floodprone communities. Goal(s): To develop and make available new low cost biodigesters appropriate for application in challenging environments, where access to sanitation and energy is severely limited. To demonstrate the potential to improve public health, water quality, sanitation, natural resource protection, energy access, and livelihoods in vulnerable communities. Objectives: 1) Develop, test, improve and document small scale and floating biodigesters and required supporting systems (flotation, inlet systems etc) to allow effective operation in floating and flood-affected villages. 2) Collect supporting data on operational performance under controlled conditions 3) Conduct preliminary practical field trials for community uptake and acceptance feedback and evidence. 4) Integrate biodigesters into holistic development programs especially for sanitation, health, Authors: Document 1: Hagan, J. M., Hughes, R., Smith, J. Document 2: Buntha, P., Bunsong, S., Hughes, R., Kunthel, T., McGill, G., Soklim, R. Document 3: Carlsson, H., Kiste, K., Berndtsson, R., Hughes, R. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Designing gender-sensitive sanitation for floating villages 2 - Floating Bio-digester for Integrated Waste Management in Agriculture and Energy Production 3 - Environmental sustainability of floating biodigesters in Tonlé Sap, Cambodia (Master Thesis from Lund University, Lund, Sweden, 2013)

Spears, D.

2012

Princeton University, USA

Open defecation without a toilet or latrine is among the leading global threats to health, especially in India. Although it is well-known that modern sewage infrastructure improves health, it is unknown whether a sanitation program feasible for a low capacity, poor country government could be effective.This paper contributes the first causally identified estimates of effects of rural sanitation on health and human capital accumulation.

81

Lessons from a Médecins Sans Frontières Program

Dorion, S., Hunter, P. R., van den Bergh, R., Roure, C., Delchevalerie, P., Reid, T., Maes, P.

2012

PLOS ONE, volume 7, issue 12, p 1

With an increasing move towards outpatient therapeutic feeding for moderately and severely malnourished children, the home environment has become an increasingly important factor in achieving good program outcomes.Infections, including those water-borne, may significantly delay weight gain in a therapeutic feeding program.This study examined the relationship between adequacy of water supply and children’s length of stay in a therapeutic feeding program in Niger.

6

Trends Shaping the Market for Urban Sanitation, a discussion paper

Schaub-Jones, D.

2012

Stockholm Environment Institute, Sweden and BPD Water & Sanitation, UK

It does seem that the term sanitation as a business is gaining some momentum. Perhaps sanitation is not yet sexy, but it is certainly gaining more attention than it did a few years ago. This paper tries, by looking more closely at one specific sanitation market, to tease out some of the broader trends affecting the sanitation sector and, in particular, unsewered sanitation. It looks at how this market is structured, where value exists and how this is monetised and suggests how this market is evolving. It also looks at how outsiders are looking to support the development and professionalization of the market. This paper also addresses some broader trends that shape markets in unsewered sanitation. While a dramatic change in approach in developing countries is highly unlikely, even a marginal shift towards alternatives to centralised sewer systems could have significant ramifications for developing countries. In Africa at least, few countries have succeeded in putting in place sewerage networks of any great scale. Many inherited their networks at independence and these have not always been well maintained (never mind kept pace with rapid urbanisation). Yet attention to other forms of waste management has been minimal; mostly those ‘without’ have been left to fend for themselves. Research and development into alternatives has been minimal and when it comes to technical choices, engineering approaches and norms and standards, professionals in the sector have generally taken their lead from developed countries.

19

A transdisciplinary project of urine diversion

Mitchell, C., Fam, D., Abeysuriya, K.

2013

Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology Sydney, Australia

This research project was initiated and delivered by the Institute for Sustainable Futures (ISF) at the University of Technology, Sydney (UTS). ISF’s mission is to create change toward sustainable futures that protect and enhance the environment, human well-being and social equity. For further information visit www.isf.uts.edu.au. The goal of the UTS Sustainable Sanitation project was to open up the space for urine diversion to become a viable concept in the urban environment.

137

Various documents on results from research grant

McGuire, D.

2013

New Life International, Inc., Underwood, Indiana, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Duvon McGuire is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/3936-overcoming-a-strategic-roadblock-to-idealized-sanitation-new-life-international-usa Goal(s): The goal of this project is to strategically tackle the critical technological roadblock of needed compressed air for “idealized sanitation solutions”. Objectives: 1- Determine the feasibility of creating a developing world appropriate “liquid ring type compressor/aerator”. 2- Determine whether a liquid ring type compressor can be created such that it can operate in the horizontal plain instead of the conventional vertical plain. 3- Design the resulting compressor/aerator such that it is “designed for manufacturing” and “tool-able” using low cost injection molding techniques to help insure global access. 4- Redefine “appropriate technology” and “sustainability” as something that not only works, but lasts. Documents available for download below: 1 - Final project report (April 2013)

Various documents on results from research grant

Wang, J.

2013

Frontier Environmental Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Jianmin Wang is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/98-resource-recovery-from-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4209-biogas-generator-powered-by-self-sustaining-mixing-mechanism-frontier-environmental-technology-usa Goal(s): The goal of this project is to develop a high-efficiency biogas generator capable of producing the quantity of biogas and quality of effluent typical of advanced biogas generators, but without their inherent power or maintenance requirements. Objectives: (a) to develop a mixing device that uses the biogas generated from the lower portion of the biogas generator to automatically mix the generator content, without external energy input and mechanical moving parts; (b) to preliminary test the performance improvement of the biogas generator that integrates the self-mixing capability with the conventional biogas generators. How does it work? Overall, I have a mixing device within the reactor. This device collects gas bubbles from the lower portion of the tank. At a certain gas volume, the entire amount of the gas is released all together, creating a suction from the tank bottom and mixing the reactor. It uses the lifting power of the biogas bubbles created within the reactor therefore it does not need external power to drive it. Also, it does not have any mechanical moving parts, and all function is accomplished hydraulically. Therefore it is expected to be maintenance-free. Possible applications: We intend to use this unit for family use to replace old, large non-mixing digesters, because the old systems are so large that they have to be built on-site with causes lots of issues. Since our self-mixing units are small we can fabricate them in a central location to reduce cost and improve product quality. Major frustrations: Our project has a very good start but we were disappointed that we did not get follow up funding for continued development and testing. Since this technology is so different than conventional thinking it may take some time to understand. The majority of the work during the research is to make the self-mixing biogas generator mechanically functional and to prove the self-mixing concept. Therefore, the actual biogas data is very limited. I really wished to have more funding to continue this research with a more realistic reactor, but it did not happen yet. We are welcoming supports from funding agencies and collaborators to continue this work. Authors: Canter, T., Wang, J., Atkinson, M +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Self-mixing biogas generator (presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012) 2 - Self-mixing biogas generator (poster at RTTC Toilet Fair in Seattle, Aug. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Maradufu, A.

2013

University of Eastern Africa, Baraton, Kenya

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Asafu Maradufu is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/97-enabling-environment-and-others/4427-using-senecio-lyratipartitus-extract-after-anal-ablution-university-of-eastern-africa-kenya#4427 Short description of the project: In the early stages of this project, it was established that water kept in pans, pots and buckets for anal ablution after defecation was replete with diarrhea causing pathogens. Hands used for anal ablution were definitely contaminated with pathogens through the contaminated water. Individuals taking no measures to disinfect their hands were carrying and spreading the pathogens to members of their households and others through hand shaking and in their various duties such as cooks in hotels and as vendors of food items. The plant S. lyratus (lyratipartitus)could be used to disinfect hands and thus stop or reduce incidences of diarrhea which causes about 2 million deaths worldwide among children below the age of five. More plant materials are required to test this hypothesis on a wider scale and also mount campaigns to educate people of the findings. Goal(s): The goal of this project is to produce a gel-based disinfectant from plant extracts of Senecio lyratipartitus which can be applied to hands. This disinfectant will reduce contamination associated with the practice of anal ablution among certain communities. Objectives: To develop an affordable hand sanitizer from the senecio lyratipartitus which can be applied on hands after anal ablution and thus prevent or reduce cases of diarrhea not only within a given household but also in a wider population. To sensitize populations practicing anal ablution of the inevitable dangers of spreading diarrhea through undisinfected hands to individuals and a given population. Authors: Maradufu, A., Obey, J. K., Sang, B. C., Khang’ati, J. E. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Using Senecio Lyratipartitus as a hand disinfectant after anal ablution (paper at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012) 2 - Using Senecio Lyratipartitus as a hand disinfectant after anal ablution (presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012) 3 - Phase I Financial and Scientific Report (Nov. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Robbins, D.

2013

RTI International, North Carolina, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that David Robbins is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/3856-using-cocopeat-for-treating-septic-tank-effluent-rti-usa-philippines-indonesia-vietnam-and-other-countries Short description of the project: Commercialize the cocopeat biofiltration technology for rapid scale up through prototyping, testing in controlled and operational environments, and then launching the products through a market-based sales and distribution model. Goal(s): The goal of this project is to test and commercialize next generation low cost and sustainable wastewater treatment systems using an innovative biofilter medium harvested from crushed coconut shells. Cocopeat, the dust that remains after the coir (fibers) are removed, is proving to be an effective medium for treating wastewater. The project team is testing the cocopeat biofilters on septic tank effluent, the effluent from community biodigesters, and greywater from residential and commercial sources. Simplified construction and installation techniques are also being explored and documented for the eventual commercialization and scaling up of the technology. Objectives: a) To introduce cocopeat biofiltration technology as a viable wastewater management choice that may be lower in cost, require less area, quicker set up time and simpler operation and maintenance than other secondary wastewater systems, such as constructed wetlands or sand and gravel filters. b) to provide business opportunities to local service providers that wish to expand their services to include this low cost technology c) to help spur economic development and job creation in coconut producing areas by introducing a new product and new paradigm of low cost sanitation improvement. Research or implementation partners: o Muntinlupa City, Municipal Government, Philippines o Can Tho University, Vietnam o Instut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia o Duke University, North Carolina USA o Eram Scientific, India o Quanics, Inc., USA o Innovative Waste Consulting Services, USA Further authors: Robbins, D., Strande, L., Doczi, J. Project website: http://watsanexp.ning.com/ +++++++++++ Documents available for download below (the first two documents are only indirectly related to the cocopeat research project): 1 - Lessons Learned in Fecal Sludge Management: Experiences from the Philippines (Paper at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012) 2 - Lessons Learned in Fecal Sludge Management: Experiences from the Philippines (Presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012) 3 - Cocopeat full paper for Nagpur DEWATS conference: Utilizing Cocopeat as a Medium for Wastewater Treatment Biofiltration for Residential and Institutional Applications (Nov. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Linden, K.

2013

University of Colorado, Boulder, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Karl Linden is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/3960-sol-char-toilet-using-concentrated-solar-energy-to-treat-fecal-waste-and-produce-a-valuable-soil-amendment-colorado Project Description: Last September, our team here at the University of Colorado, Boulder took on the BMGF challenge to reinvent the toilet with a novel approach that utilizes concentrated solar energy to safely and efficiently char fecal waste without the need for intensive pre-drying. As a quick overview, our toilet – the Sol-Char Toilet – is a waterless, self-contained toilet that functions off-the-grid. Concentrated sunlight is delivered to fiber optic bundles located at the focus of parabolic concentrators (see Concept Sketch). The fiber optic cables are fed to the reaction compartment of the Sol-Char where the various individual cables are terminated at an outer or “solar” lid positioned over the waste collection container. The innovative transmission of concentrated solar power illuminates the inner collection container and disinfects the waste though conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer. The reaction compartment comprises two or more containers that are alternated between “collection” and “reaction” modes via a simple carousel system that can be automated (powered with photovoltaic energy) or manually controlled. The reactor is designed to achieve high temperatures (300oC to 750oC) and produces a safe and useable product. Research Goal: Our goal during this phase 1 of research is to develop a functioning toilet prototype that will provide a scientific basis for utilizing concentrated solar energy to safely disinfect and transform human waste into valuable end products (such as char for agricultural soil application). On-going research activities include: • Solar collection and transmission optimization • Reactor modeling and fabrication • Char product evaluation and testing o Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) and dry pyrolysis chars will be compared o Dry pyrolysis will also be evaluated with mixed waste and urine diversion to determine the best utilization of nutrients o Adsorption studies will be conducted in the liquid and gas phase to determine if the char can be further enriched with NPK • Means for odor control, gas utilization, and final product storage • User interface and safety features Our prototype development is underway and we are excited to further advance this technology. We welcome your feedback and comments! Further authors: Linden, K. G., Summers, R. S., Weimer, A., Lewandowski, A., Klees, R., Oversby, C., Mahoney, R., Yacob, T., Fisher, R., Mejic, D., Kearns, J., Beck, S., Shimabuku, K. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Solar biochar toilet (presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012) 2 - Solar biochar toilet (paper at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012)

Briefing Note

Lennon, S.

2011

SHARE (Sanitation and Hygiene Applied Research for Equity) and WaterAid, UK

The link between a lack of access to water and sanitation facilities and sexual violence against women is not well known and to date has received insufficient attention. This document attempts to highlight this link within the context of urban slums in Delhi, and suggests how this problem can be addressed. Access to water and sanitation services and the fulfilment of these fundamental human rights is experienced differently by men and women. The lack of access to sanitation and drinking water affects women and girls disproportionately, by impacting on their health and dignity, contributing to their vulnerability, and thereby frustrating efforts to empower women to lead a healthy and economically productive life. Women without water supplies and toilets within their homes are potentially vulnerable to sexual violence when travelling to and from public facilities, when using public facilities and when they have to defecate in the open in the absence of any amenities.

15

Various documents on results from research grant

Deshusses, M.

2013

Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Marc Deshusses is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/2952-effective-sewage-sanitation-with-low-co2-footprint-duke-university-in-durham-north-carolina-usa Short description of the project: The overall objective of our project is to develop and demonstrate the proof of concept a novel self-contained and energy neutral sanitation technology that relies on anaerobic digestion of the wastes to generate biogas and utilization of the biogas thus produced to heat-sterilize the treated effluent. The system utilizes simple and reliable equipment so that it does not require a skilled operator or any special maintenance regime. Goal: Provide proof of concept of anaerobic digestion coupled with heat sterilization for a self-sanitizing system for developing communities Activities and objectives The project has been divided in two main parts: a) The anaerobic reactor (lab scale): design and performance b) The heat sterilization system (full-scale or near full-scale): design, construction and proof of concept to heat-sterilize the treated sewage effluent The main goal of the lab anaerobic reactor is to prove the suitability of a mixture of feces and urine to serve as a substrate for the anaerobic process focused mainly in the yield and rate of biogas production. The concern is mainly to achieve usual biogas yields and obtain suitable rates of biogas production. Regarding the heat sterilization system, the challenge is to design a simple and low-cost system with virtually no moving parts, that can effectively deployed, e.g., as a replacement of pit latrines. Research or implementation partners: Chepkoilel University, Eldoret, Kenya Further authors: Deshusses, M., Colon, J., Forbis-Stokes, A. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Effective sewage sanitation with low CO2 footprint (Paper at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012) 2 - Effective sewage sanitation with low CO2 footprint (Presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Hand, T.

2013

Wetland Works! Ltd, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Taber Hand is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4057-floating-treatment-pods-for-lake-communities-in-asia-wetland-works-ltd-phnom-penh-cambodia Short description of the project: The socio-entrepreneurial start-up Wetlands Work! received a grant in Round 7 of the Bill and Melinda Gates Grand Challenges Exploration program. WW! has developed an individual household wastewater treatment system that uses floating “Pods” - similar in appearance to children’s wading pools - that are positioned directly under the toilets of houseboats occupied by low-income fishing families. Similar to aquatic mesocosms, the Pods are filled with floating plants, and the bacteria that reside on the plant roots are capable of breaking down contaminants and making the water significantly cleaner. Presently, Pods are installed throughout an entire floating community and data on water quality (indicator organisms) and diarrheal incidence (children ds are used per household. The first, which is positioned directly under the toilet, covered and predominantly anaerobic, is linked through a small opening to a second Pod, predominantly aerobic and containing plants. This set-up eliminates odor and increases treatment capacity. 2) Pod tests: demonstrated the ability of the single aerobic Pod to significantly reduce E. coli (an indicator bacterium) levels under controlled conditions by 3 log orders in a 24-hr period, for example from 6.7 to 3.9 log reduction of E. coli. Pods were filled with clean water and hyacinth (~3.5 kg). Sewage or raw feces were added and E. coli measured in water samples. Pod tests on lake: A tracer study will be used to determine most efficient retention time and flow between double Pods and out flow to ambient water. Pilot Pod village tests: Single Pod tested 1+ year at a floating research station and then for 4 months at a villager’s house, followed by village-wide deployment of double Pods since January 1, 2013. Two villages have been selected, with one acting as a no-intervention control, while in the second treatment Pods are widely adopted in all but three houses. There are approximately forty households in one, fifty in the other at similar income levels. Each family has between 4 to 6 people. A weekly survey is used to gauge the health of 0-10 year olds (our target group is 0-5 yr olds) in the villages using a simple questionnaire on gastrointestinal symptoms and three photos from the Bristol stool test. After 18+ months of Pod usage, health and water quality data collected over the course of Pod implementation in the two villages will be statistically assessed. 3) Field-testing on the village scale (40 households, 37 Pods, 198 people): Observing and addressing usefulness, behavioural adaptation and maintenance issues, as well as optimising Pod size to ensure sufficient treatment capacity for larger households of 7 or more, including schoolhouse. Further, testing locally available materials (e.g. bamboo baskets) to adapt in Pod construction. 4) Field-testing in Burma: In addition to the floating villages in Cambodia, a variant treatment Pod is being designed for pilot introduction in two stilted home communities (~50 Pods each, total ~460 people) living on Lake Inle, Burma, which face similar challenges in sanitation. The administrative framework and MOU are in place, and we are currently awaiting funding. Research or implementation partners: Conservation International in Cambodia and Inle Lake and Watershed Development Association and Institute of International Development in Burma Further authors: Chakraborty, I., Jennings, W., Khon, P., Hand T. Project website: wetlandswork.org/2012/12/12/handy-pods/ +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Floating treatment pods for lake communities (Presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Lindsay, S.

2013

London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, UK

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Steve Lindsay is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Goal(s): The goal of this project is to design traps that attract, capture and kill flies in latrines in an effort to reduce fly-transmitted diarrheal diseases. Abstract of Paper 1 (Lindsay et al. 2012): Background: Chrysomya spp are common blowflies in Africa, Asia and parts of South America and some species can reproduce in prodigious numbers in pit latrines. Because of their strong association with human feces and their synanthropic nature, we examined whether these flies are likely to be vectors of diarrheal pathogens. Methodology/Principal Findings: Flies were sampled using exit traps placed over the drop holes of latrines in Gambian villages. Odor-baited fly traps were used to determine the relative attractiveness of different breeding and feeding media. The presence of bacteria on flies was confirmed by culture and bacterial DNA identified using PCR. A median of 7.00 flies/ latrine/day (IQR = 0.0–25.25) was collected, of which 95% were Chrysomya spp, and of these nearly all were Chrysomya putoria (99%). More flies were collected from traps with feces from young children (median = 3.0, IQR = 1.75–10.75) and dogs (median = 1.50, IQR = 0.0–13.25) than from herbivores (median = 0.0, IQR = 0.0–0.0; goat, horse, cow and calf; p,0.001). Flies were strongly attracted to raw meat (median = 44.5, IQR = 26.25–143.00) compared with fish (median = 0.0, IQR = 0.0–19.75, ns), cooked and uncooked rice, and mangoes (median = 0.0, IQR = 0.0–0.0; p,0.001). Escherichia coli were cultured from the surface of 21% (15/72 agar plates) of Chrysomya spp and 10% of these were enterotoxigenic. Enteroaggregative E. coli were identified by PCR in 2% of homogenized Chrysomya spp, Shigella spp in 1.4% and Salmonella spp in 0.6% of samples. Conclusions/Significance: The large numbers of C. putoria that can emerge from pit latrines, the presence of enteric pathogens on flies, and their strong attraction to raw meat and fish suggests these flies may be common vectors of diarrheal diseases in Africa. Abstract of paper 2 (Lindsay et al., 2012): African pit latrines produce prodigious numbers of the latrine fly, Chrysomya putoria, a putative vector of diarrhoeal pathogens. We set out to develop a simple, low-cost odour-baited trap for collecting C. putoria in the field. A series of field experiments was carried out in The Gambia to assess the catching-efficiency of different trap designs. The basic trap was a transparent 3L polypropylene box baited with 50 g of fish, with a white opaque lid with circular entrance holes. We tested variations of the number, diameter, position and shape of the entrance holes, the height of the trap above ground, degree of transparency of the box, its shape, volume, colour, and the attractiveness of gridded surfaces on or under the trap. Traps were rotated between positions on different sampling occasions using a Latin Square design. The optimal trapping features were incorporated into a final trap that was tested against commercially available traps. Features of the trap that increased the number of flies caught included: larger entrance holes (compared with smaller ones, p,0.001), using conical collars inside the holes (compared with without collars, p = 0.01), entrance holes on the top of the trap (compared with the side or bottom, p,0.001), traps placed on the ground (compared with above ground, p,0.001), the box having transparent sides (compared with being opaque, p,0.001), and with no wire grids nearby (compared with those with grids, p = 0.03). This trap collected similar numbers of C. putoria to other common traps for blow flies. The optimum trap design was a transparent box, with a white plastic lid on top, perforated with 10 conical entrance holes, placed on the ground. Our simple trap provides a cheap, low-maintenance and effective method of sampling C. putoria in the field. Authors: Paper 1 1: Lindsay, T. C., Jawara, M., D’Alessandro, U., Pinder M., Lindsay S.W. Paper 2: Lindsay, S. W., Lindsay, T. C., Duprez, J., Hall, M. J. R., Kwambana, B. A., Jawara, M., Nurudeen, I. U., Sallah, N., Wyatt, N., D’Alessandro, U., Pinder, M., Antonio, M. -------------------- Further documents (not available for download from this website): Abstract of paper 3: Lindsay, T. C., Jawara, M., D’Alessandro, U., Pinder, M., Lindsay, S. W. (2013) Preliminary studies developing methods for the control of Chrysomya putoria, the African latrine fly, in pit latrines in The Gambia. Tropical Medicine and International Health volume 18 no 2 pp 159–165 Objective To explore ways of controlling Chrysomya putoria, the African latrine fly, in pit latrines. As pit latrines are a major source of these flies, eliminating these important breeding sites is likely to reduce village fly populations, and may reduce the spread of diarrhoeal pathogens. Methods We treated 24 latrines in a Gambian village: six each with (i) pyriproxyfen, an insect juvenile hormone mimic formulated as Sumilarv® 0.5G, a 0.5% pyriproxyfen granule, (ii) expanded polystyrene beads (EPB), (iii) local soap or (iv) no treatment as controls. Flies were collected using exit traps placed over the drop holes, weekly for five weeks. In a separate study, we tested whether latrines also function as efficient flytraps using the faecal odours as attractants. We constructed six pit latrines each with a built-in flytrap and tested their catching efficiency compared to six fish-baited box traps positioned 10 m from the latrine. Focus group discussions conducted afterwards assessed the acceptability of the flytrap latrines. Results Numbers of emerging C. putoria were reduced by 96.0% (95% CIs: 94.5–97.2%) 4–5 weeks after treatment with pyriproxyfen; by 64.2% (95% CIs: 51.8–73.5%) after treatment with local soap; by 41.3% (95% CIs = 24.0–54.7%) after treatment with EPB 3–5 weeks after treatment. Flytraps placed on latrines collected C. putoria and were deemed acceptable to local communities. Conclusions Sumilarv 0.5G shows promise as a chemical control agent, whilst odour-baited latrine traps may prove a useful method of non-chemical fly control. Both methods warrant further development to reduce fly production from pit latrines. A combination of interventions may prove effective for the control of latrine flies and the diseases they transmit. ------------- Abstract of Paper 4: Promoting Health and Advancing Development through Improved Housing in Low-Income Settings Authors: Andy Haines, Nigel Bruce, Sandy Cairncross, Michael Davies, Katie Greenland, Alexandra Hiscox, Steve Lindsay, Tom Lindsay, David Satterthwaite, and Paul Wilkinson Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine doi:10.1007/s11524-012-9773-8 ABSTRACT There is major untapped potential to improve health in low-income communities through improved housing design, fittings, materials and construction. Adverse effects on health from inadequate housing can occur through a range of mechanisms, both direct and indirect, including as a result of extreme weather, household air pollution, injuries or burns, the ingress of disease vectors and lack of clean water and sanitation. Collaborative action between public health professionals and those involved in developing formal and informal housing could advance both health and development by addressing risk factors for a range of adverse health outcomes. Potential trade-offs between design features which may reduce the risk of some adverse outcomes whilst increasing the risk of others must be explicitly considered. +++++++++++++++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Development of odour-baited flytraps for sampling the African latrine fly, Chrysomya Putoria, a putative vector of enteric diseases (2012) 2 - Chrysomya Putoria, a putative vector of diarrheal diseases (2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Musyoki, J.

2013

Water Services Trust Fund, Kenya

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Jacqueline Musyoki is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/97-enabling-environment-and-others/4204-up-scaling-basic-sanitation-for-the-urban-poor-in-kenya-ubsup-wstf-and-giz-kenya Short description of the project: Rapid urbanization combined with a widening income gap between rich and poor and limited economic opportunities of the poorer strata in the society are the main causes of the increasing growth of the low income urban settlements including slums in Most African countries. Slum dwellers, however, face serious inadequacy in access to safe water and basic sanitation as characterized by deteriorating living conditions. Kenya is one such African country facing these challenges. The country has more than 1,800 low income areas with a total estimated population of 8 million. The lack of access to adequate basic sanitation by the poor population has had devastating infant (under five) mortality effect, insecurity especially to women at night and low dignity among other sanitation burdens. It is in this context that the WSTF jointly with GIZ are developing a concept for up-scaling sanitation in low income urban households with a focus on household and plot-level sanitation aimed at improving the living conditions of the urban poor in Kenya through enhanced access to basic sanitation and safe water. Goals The goals of this project is to improve the living conditions of the urban poor by offering access to sustainable plot level sanitation for up to 800.000 and to safe water for up to 200.000 residents of urban low income areas in Kenya, enabling these residents to practice sound hygiene. The project consists of a “technical component” (advisory services, capacity building, up-scaling concept development, monitoring and reporting system, etc.) and a “financial and up-scaling component” providing subsidies for plot level sanitation facilities. Objectives of the programme 1. The project is successful when it provides sustainable sanitation for over 800,000 people and safe water for 200,000 in the urban low income-areas in Kenya and will have achieved satisfactory performance if 600,000 are reached with sanitation and 100,000 with safe water. 2. A monitoring system for tracking access to safe water and basic sanitation facilities of urban low income area dwellers is in place and accessible to the public (i.e. an online database). 3. Sector institutions, civil society organizations and small-scale private entrepreneurs have the capacity to actively participate in the provision of basic sanitation to the urban low income areas and cooperation with research institutes results in improved sanitation options. 4. A sanitation up-scaling concept in line with the sector reforms ensures sustainable use of facilities and is used for the further development of the sub-sector. Further team members: Simon Okoth +++++++++++++ Documents available for download: - None so far

Various documents on results from research grant.

Russel, K.

2013

Stanford University, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Kory Russel is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/99-faecal-sludge-transport/4002-resource-mobile-sanitation-services-for-dense-urban-slums-stanford-university-usa Short description of the project: We aim to develop a low-cost sanitation service for the one billion (and growing) people living in urban slums. We seek to perfect the hardware and service model for this service in order to facilitate entrepreneurial franchises around the world. Our first pilot was in Shada, a community in Cap-Haitien, Haiti, in close collaboration with our friends at SOIL. We are developing a portable, low-cost household toilet and entrepreneurial service model to deliver a safe, dignified sanitation service in urban slums. We piloted a container-based system in Shada, a slum that has no sewers and no piped water supply. Our toilet is portable, with removable containers to collect and transport wastes safely from the community. Waste is being processed at SOIL's human waste composting facilities, generating fertilizer to improve Haiti's devastated soil resources. Our strategy is to enable local entrepreneurs to recover energy, nutrients, and material from the waste in order to subsidize the cost of the sanitation system, reduce user fees, earn a livelihood, improve the environment and boost agricultural productivity. Since our toilets are portable, users do not need to make a large up-front payment to use our service. They subscribe for a small monthly fee, and receive the toilet as part of the service. If they terminate the service or are evicted without the option of continuing service elsewhere, they can return the toilet at no penalty. Objectives / Activities / Key Components: 1. Design a modern, portable, affordable, and stylish container-based toilet that will appeal to urban customers who otherwise aspire to a flush toilet. 2. Develop business tools to foster the growth of sanitation service businesses around the toilets. 3. Pilot both the toilet and service in a rigorous, research based trial . 4. Integrate mobile waste tracking technology into the service to monitor performance, maximize efficiency, and minimize service costs. 5. Convert all collected waste into useful and valuable end products. 6. Produce rigorous research and business assessment tools to test and improve container-based systems ensuring that they can scale while protecting and satisfying their users. +++++++++++++ Documents available for download: - None so far

Various documents on results from research grant

Foutch, G. L.

2013

Oklahoma State University, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Gary Foutch is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4054-auger-die-assembly-that-treats-fecal-wastes-at-high-temperature-and-shear-stress-oklahoma-state-university-usa Short description of the project: We have built and tested a laboratory scale device that can heat fecal and simulant materials up to 190C by friction generated between a rotating inner core and a fixed outer core. Current efforts focus on reclamation of water vaporized from the waste. Goal(s): The goal of this project is to develop a small-scale device in which an auger forces feces and other solid wastes device through a die that results in high temperatures and pressure that dewaters the waste and destroys microorganisms. Objectives: Our focus has been on sanitization of solid waste for subsequent safe use, handling and transportation. The energy input into the solids is by mechanical forces that results in the mass self heating by friction. The temperature rise is sufficient to allow water to leave as steam for condensation and reuse. Start and end date: Start: 1 May, 2011 End: 31 Oct 2012, final report submitted: 15 Dec 2012 Grant type: GCE Round 6 Funding for this research currently ongoing (yes/no): Students funded currently with OSU endowment funds. Phase 2 submission in process. Research or implementation partners: None Further authors: Document 1: Islam, M. W., Podichetty, J. T., Foutch, G.L., Johannes, A.H., Reichard, M. Document 2: Foutch, G.L., Johannes, A.H., Islam, M. W., Podichetty, J. T., Van, D., Reichard, M. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Faecal Sludge Treatment by Viscous Heating (Paper at the FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012) 2 - Faecal Sludge Treatment by Viscous Heating (Presentation at FSM2 Conference in Durban, South Africa, Oct. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Halas, N.

2013

Rice University, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Naomi Halas is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4317-solar-steam-sterilizer-for-treatment-of-human-waste-rice-university-usa#4317 Short description of the project: Solar steam generation, a recent discovery from the Halas lab at Rice University, is the technological breakthrough upon which this project is based. Light-absorbing nanoparticles, when dispersed in water and illuminated by sunlight, produce steam with only secondary heating of the fluid volume: more than 80% of the solar energy absorbed by the nanoparticles is converted directly into steam, with less than 20% contributing to residual fluid heating. Due to its unparalleled high efficiency, this process produces high temperature steam rapidly, in compact, standalone geometries extremely well-suited for applications in the developing world. The nanoparticles are inexpensive, industrially produced carbon particles, and are not consumed in the steam generation process. The only input other than solar energy is water, which need not be sterilized prior to use. Goal(s): The goal of this project is to design and build a Solar Steam Sterilizer specifically for the processing of human excreta in resource-constrained locations. Objectives: In Phase I we demonstrated a compact, standalone solar steam generator-driven autoclave capable of delivering high temperature steam (>130oC) for the sterilization of human waste. The prototype unit is capable of sterilizing a 14 liter volume of waste in 5 minutes (30 minute total cycling time). Both the short cycle time and the quality of the sterilized output “product” establish a new standard far above existing waste remediation methods. Start and end date: end date 30 April 2013, final report due 15 June 2013 Grant type: GCE R7 Research or implementation partners: Sanivation and EurekaSun Further authors: Neumann, O., Feronti, C., Dong, A., Neumann, A., Calderon, I. Journal article about this project: Oara Neumann, Alexander S. Urban, Jared Day, Surbhi Lal, Peter Nordlander, and N. J. Halas, “Solar Vapor Generation enabled by nanoparticles”, ACS Nano 7, 42-49 (2013). pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/nn304948h Abstract: Solar illumination of broadly absorbing metal or carbon nanoparticles dispersed in a liquid produces vapor without the requirement of heating the fluid volume. When particles are dispersed in water at ambient temperature, energy is directed primarily to vaporization of water into steam, with a much smaller fraction resulting in heating of the fluid. Sunlight-illuminated particles can also drive H2O–ethanol distillation, yielding fractions significantly richer in ethanol content than simple thermal distillation. These phenomena can also enable important compact solar applications such as sterilization of waste and surgical instruments in resource-poor locations. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1- A solar steam sterilizer for the treatment of human waste (Poster, Aug. 2012)

Various documents on results from research grant

Ning, J.

2013

Shijiazhuang University of Economics, PR China

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Jing Ning is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/105-processing-technologies-for-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4371-fecal-sludge-extraction-and-disposal-system-in-situ-solarwind-energy-driven-facility-shijiazhuang-uni-china Short description of the project: Disposal human waste in situ by an column-like facility; Evaporation liquid from raw sewage powered by solar-thermal energy; remove pathogens by raising temperature over 140C; preferred on existing, inexpensive, practical, multi-disciplinary techniques and methods to solve the great challenge in limited term. Goal(s): The goal of this project is to design a new system for hygienic and adequate pit/tank emptying and extraction. Objectives: 1) Suitable sunny areas / countries (cover ~0.8 billion@ 2.6 billion without sanitation) 2) Meet the “off the grid, inexpensive, recover resources and remove the pathogens” Start and end date: Nov, 2011~Mar 2013 , final report 1 May 2013 Grant type: GCE Round 7 Funding for this research currently ongoing (yes/no): yes +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1- GCE Phase I Scientific Report (April 2013)

Various documents on results from research grant

Garoma, T.

2013

San Diego State University Foundation, USA

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Temesgen Garoma is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/98-resource-recovery-from-excreta-or-faecal-sludge/4232-enhanced-anaerobic-digestion-a-sanitation-and-energy-recovery-technology-modad-san-diego-state-university-usa-and-kenya-ethiopia Short description of the project: Modified Anaerobic Digestion (ModAD) technology, developed at San Diego State University with a grant from the Grand Challenge Explorations Program of the Bill and Melinda Gate Foundation, has the potential to address the sanitation challenges in developing countries. Laboratory results showed that the technology can be developed into a reliable, affordable, and sustainable waste treatment system (Garoma and Williams, 2012). ModAD technology has produced residual biosolids that meet US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) requirements for pathogen and volatile solids reductions, thus these biosolids can be applied to soil as fertilizer (USEPA, 1999). In addition, the technology recovers biogas as a fuel for energy. The recovery of these resources, biosolids and biogas, provide additional incentives for a community to adopt and sustain this technology. The ModAD technology is versatile and the design can be modified to fit for communities of all income levels. Furthermore, it can be scaled to treat waste at any size facility, from a group of households at rural communities to a high rise building in big cities. Goal(s): The goal of this project is to modify and adapt an anaerobic digestion system that will treat waste and generate a reliable supply of biogas from the co-digestion of algal biomass and waste. Start and end date: 31 Oct 2011, final report due 30 October 2013 Grant type: GCE R7 Funding for this research currently ongoing (yes/no): Yes Research or implementation partners: Jimma University, Ethiopia and Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya. Journal paper: Enhanced Anaerobic Digestion as a Sanitation and Energy Recovery Technology - by Temesgen Garoma and Carissa Williams; will be published in Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development in 2013. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1- Enhanced anaerobic digestion as a sanitation and energy recovery technology (paper at FSM2 Conference, Durban, Oct. 2012) 2- Enhanced anaerobic digestion as a sanitation and energy recovery technology (presentation at FSM2 Conference, Oct. 2012)

Krishnan, S.

2011

INREM Foundation, India

Going into the second decade of the 21st century, the question of good sanitation is yet unresolved in most of the developing world. A variety of contributing factors dictate that on-site sanitation is still the most widespread mode of sanitation available. If properly implemented, such options could in combination with other larger scale services offer viable alternatives and complementary approaches to dominantly sewer-based sanitation systems. However, both poor design of such on-site sanitation systems, dense habitation and a combination of physical hydrogeologic factors result in threat to the contamination to fresh groundwater resources. Drinking water in both rural and urban parts of the developing world being highly decentralized and dependent critically on aquifers, this contamination of groundwater such on-site sanitation has a heavy public health burden, visible through a host of diseases, causing widespread morbidity and mortality. Objective(s): The objective of this report is to first provide ways of assessing this threat of contamination to groundwater and practical means of evaluating future vulnerability at the design stage itself. The report also looks at options for adaptation with such threat especially in dense habitations where both on-site sanitation and drinking water facilities are spaced very closely. The study is based on review of literature, discussion with experts and practitioners and calibrating these with presentations in public forums. The presented “Policy Review” and “Technical Review” parts of this report attends to the needs of planners, aid agencies, researchers and practitioners to unravel through the mesh of this question and find reasonable solutions that can make headway. Presented also is a simple spreadsheet tool that summarizes the learnings and offers a method to assess vulnerability and compare alternatives.

59

Various documents on results from research grant

Larsen, T.

2013

Eawag (Switzerland) in cooperation with EOOS (Austria)

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Tove Larsen is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/106-user-interface/2956-diversion-for-safe-sanitation-grant-on-advanced-toilet-with-on-site-water-recovery-eawag-and-eoos-switzerland-and-austria Short description of the project: The Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag) and industrial design company EOOS develop a urine-diverting dry toilet with the additional feature of an integrated wash water recovery that allows for the comfort of hand washing and toilet cleaning. The squatting “diversion toilet” pan separates three streams: undiluted urine, dry feces and wash water. The used water is treated on-site based on ultrafiltration and recycled for the same purposes. Separated urine and feces are transported to a semi-decentralized recovery plant (scale: ~800-1000 persons) where nutrients and energy are recovered. Goal(s): The goal of RTTC Phase 1 (August 2011 – July 2012) was to design a urine-diverting dry toilet, that is user-friendly, attractive, hygienic, and allows for the use of water for personal hygiene and cleaning of the toilet surface and to deliver proof of the recycling technology as well as the proof of transport logistics and treatment concepts. Goal of RTTC phase 2 (November 2012- February 2014) is to further develop the “diversion toilet” design and the on-site water recovery technology and to finally demonstrate an integrated toilet prototype “in an operational environment” (Technology Readiness Level TRL 7). Furthermore, the treatment technology for urine and the cooperation with external partners for feces treatment will be further developed to be demonstrated “in a relevant environment” (TRL 6). Additionally, a proof of concept will be delivered for a further development of the toilet with on-site feces and urine treatment (= “diversion autarky” toilet) (TRL5). Start and end date: Phase 2: November 2012- February 2014 Funding for this research currently ongoing (yes/no): Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Swiss Development Cooperation (for the business model), Eawag and EOOS in-kind funding Research or implementation partners: • EOOS, Austria (website: http://www.eoos.com/cms/?id=250) • Makerere University, Uganda +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: 1 - Diversion for safe sanitation (Paper at FSM2 Conference in Durban, 2012)

8

Various documents on results from research grant

Narracott, A.

2013

Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor (WSUP), London

This library entry contains background documents for a grant that Andy Narracott is leading and which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Further information and a discussion is available on the SuSanA discussion forum: http://forum.susana.org/forum/categories/97-enabling-environment-and-others/4000-bringing-sanitation-innovations-to-market-b-sim-wsup-uk-and-ghana-zambia-kenya-bangladesh Short description of the project: This grant will support a four year program aimed at using new sanitation technologies to activate and expand the sanitation market in four cities in Africa and South Asia. Last year, the Foundation put sanitation on the map when it issued a challenge to design toilets that can capture and process human waste without piped water, sewer or electrical connections, and transform human waste into useful resources, such as energy and water, at an affordable price. WSUP believes that great technology is only the beginning. For technology to translate into improved services, we need a deep understanding of the users and markets in which the technology will operate, as we need supportive and strong local institutions. The project will prime the market for the rapid uptake of sanitation services and create the enabling environment for the market based scale-up of new and innovative sanitation options and service models which will make a significant contribution to the growing challenge of urban sanitation. Goal: The goal of the project is to significantly improve on-site sanitation services being delivered in four locations in the developing world. The aim for an ‘excellent’ outcome of this project is at least 10% of the city wide on-site sanitation market in each location, an estimated 375,000 people, accessing improved services at a cost of $0.05 per consumer per day or less, lower costs and higher margins for faecal sludge management (FSM) operators and on-going investment for service expansion in each location by October 2016. Objectives: The program has four sub objectives: 1. Establish a technology-independent working value chain and a supportive institutional environment 2. To utilise new designs of latrine to activate the on-site sanitation market at city scale in Rangpur, Bangladesh & a secondary town in the Rift Valley, Kenya (TBC in design phase) 3. To utilise new pit emptying technology to activate the on-site sanitation market at city scale in Lusaka, Zambia 4. To utilise a new sludge treatment process, from the Foundation's pipeline, or elsewhere, to activate the on-site sanitation market at city scale in Kumasi, Ghana Current state of affairs: As at 5th March 2013: Zambia: Building implementation team. Carrying out background research on the pit-emptying technologies and businesses, institutional touch-points and analogous inspiration. Currently partnering with IDEO.org to use human-centered design methodologies to develop, test, and refine insights into a viable business model for a pit emptying technology. Ghana: initiating market research to understand the local market potential for human waste-derived products. Carrying out an analysis of the institutional environment surrounding the transport, storage, processing and sale of human-waste derived products. Bangladesh: Building implementation team. Carrying out background research on the sanitation value chain and seeking out analogous inspiration. Initiating market research to understand the local market and institutional touch-points for re-invented toilets. Kenya: Beginning 2nd April 2013. +++++++++++ Documents available for download below: - none available yet, please check back later